Latin (Part One)

This article illustrates the alphabet by showing the relationship between graphemes and phonemes. Each item in the alphabet contains three elements, namely graphemes, transliteration of phonemes, and phonemes. The graphemes part is self-explanatory due to a set of principles that China used in constructing the alphabet, and the main point is the interpretation of phonemes.

In the primary aspect, phonemes are very much related to standard phonology, so we need to present the standard phonology used by each alphabet. In the literature on these alphabets, it is common to refer to some foreign alphabets as ‘unscientifically designed’, usually in the sense that its standard phonology is not found in China. Other cases include adaptation to foreign orthography, etc., resulting in overly complex relationships between phonemes and graphemes, etc. It is easy to see intentional design inconsistencies when comparing the relationship between graphemes in the alphabet and phonemes in the standard phonology, most commonly when multiple phonemes are recorded using the same graphemes, so we will also consider these cases.

Even with these explanations, it cannot be said that the relationship between alphabet and standard language is the same as that between graphemes and phonemes, i.e. that once an alphabet was devised, it produced a written language that was not the same as all the spoken forms of the language. Thus, the sequence of phonemes under a given phonology cannot be used to generate its grapheme sequence based on a set of rules, nor can it be understood simply as the sequence of phonemes with which each grapheme sequence is labelled. There are many reasons for this immediate inconsistency between written and spoken language, including but not limited to (1) different morphemes correspond to the same phonemes in a given phonology and it is necessary to differentiate them, leading to the use of written forms corresponding to a different phonology; (2) some special phonemes in a phonology need to be covered by the alphabet; (3) some loan words from other languages require special written forms.

Reasons for these reasons may include (1) the inability of the phonetic writing system to handle the complexity of recording the richness of meaning in some languages with a simple syllable structure, and (2) the fact that the writing system records modern dialects of a particular place rather than the modern lingua franca, let alone the historical lingua franca.

Thus, the list of graphemes in this article is influenced by phonology and is not equivalent to the standard alphabet of Latin script, and more importantly, the list of phonemes in this article receives the influence of the alphabet and is not equivalent to that of any phonology. For example, since some alphabets distinguish between lax and tense vowel by means of consonant letters, they are also considered to be distinguished by means of consonants in phoneme transliteration. With this modification, it became possible to generate graphemes from phoneme transliteration based on a set of rules.

Lisu Language

Lisu written with Latin in 1956 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Lisu language. According to the meeting of the People’s Government of the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture in January 1956, the writing system records the ‘Standard Lisu Phonology’, that is, ‘the Lisu phonology along the east bank of the Nujiang River, north of Shuangmi Wangdi (双米王底) and Lamaga Wazhi (拉麻嘎瓦支) in Luobenzhuo town (洛本卓乡), Lushui city (泸水市) and south of Zilengkong River (子楞孔河) in Pihe town (匹河乡), Fugong county (福贡县)’. The phonology belongs to the Nujiang dialect of the Lisu language.

According to Mu (1990) ¹, the writing system was proposed in draft form in 1956 and approved for trial use by the Central Ethnic Affairs Commission in 1957. A book called Lìsùyǔ Hànyǔ Xiǎocídiǎn ² can confirm that the draft was proposed in 1956. There are discrepancies in the descriptions of the draft in these two documents, and the draft was not formally enacted on a trial basis.

Combining the two documents, the alphabet can be roughly inferred to be:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. It is not known which letters correspond to the phonemes v /v/, ñ /ɲ/, ṣ /z/ and ḥ /ɣ/.
3. The orthography shows in Mu (1990) ¹: (1) uses ⟨ƃ⟩ (< ⟨б⟩) for b, ⟨ƌ⟩ (< ⟨д⟩) for d; (2) uses ⟨j⟩ for ẓ́, ⟨ш⟩ for e; (3) uses ⟨l⟩ for ¹, ⟨q⟩ for ², ⟨x⟩ for ⁴, ⟨r⟩ for ⁵, ⟨d⟩ for ⁶.

Lisu written with Latin in 1957 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Lisu language. According to the meeting of the People’s Government of the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture in January 1956, the writing system records the ‘Standard Lisu Phonology’, that is, ‘the Lisu phonology along the east bank of the Nujiang River, north of Shuangmi Wangdi (双米王底) and Lamaga Wazhi (拉麻嘎瓦支) in Luobenzhuo town (洛本卓乡), Lushui city (泸水市) and south of Zilengkong River (子楞孔河) in Pihe town (匹河乡), Fugong county (福贡县)’. The phonology belongs to the Nujiang dialect of the Lisu language.

The writing system was proposed in October 1957, and probably in 1958 it began to be widely used. The alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. Nasalized and non-nasalized vowels exist in contrast but are not represented, for example, ñi⁶ ⟨nit⟩ ‘two’, ni⁶ ⟨nit⟩ ‘ghost’.
3. When precedes i or e, the letter ⟨w⟩ will be used, for example, ṣua¹ ⟨xual⟩ ‘poor’, ua⁶ ⟨wat⟩ ‘snow’.
4. In the syllables with zero initial, when precedes i or e, ⟨j⟩ instead of ⟨zh⟩, ⟨q⟩ instead of ⟨ch⟩, ⟨jj⟩ instead of ⟨rr⟩, ⟨x⟩ instead of ⟨sh⟩, ⟨y⟩ instead of ⟨r⟩ are used, thus the two sets of consonants should be analyzed as allophones.
5. When follows h, the phonemes i, é, ê, a, o, u and e are realized as [ĩ], [ẽ], [ɛ̃], [ɑ̃], [õ], [ũ] and [ɯ̃].

Jingpo Language

Jingpo written with Latin in 1895 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Jingpo language. In 1890, Mr and Mrs Hanson traveled to Bhamo, Myanmar, and collaborated with Burmese Jingpo intellectuals to create this writing system. The writing system was finished in 1893 and published in 1895. The writing system records the ‘Standard Jingpo’ spoken in Bhamo, Myanmar.

According to A Grammar of the Kachin Language, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨ē⟩ and ⟨è⟩ appeared in the alphabet, but they are not analyzed as having the strict function of indicating tones. They appear in very few words, such as ⟨htē⟩ ‘all’, ⟨nyē⟩ ‘my’, ⟨jēyang⟩ ‘to prohibit’. It should be assumed that tones are not recorded.
2. ⟨o⟩ is used to record o only in ⟨wo⟩ ‘there’ as a variant of ⟨waw⟩.
3. ⟨ch⟩ is used with the same function as ⟨chy⟩, but there is no evidence to support.
4. ⟨ö⟩ is used to record ö /ø/, ⟨ŭ⟩ is used to record á /ʌ/, they are introduced for kindred dialects.

Jingpo written with Latin in 1940 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Jingpo language. Around 1940, some Burmese Jingpo intellectuals had cancelled the four consonants ⟨gy⟩, ⟨ky⟩, ⟨hky⟩ and ⟨hpy⟩ in the process of usage. Later, it was felt that the elimination of the four consonants would make it impossible to spell some Jingpo words, so the four consonants were restored, only the ⟨ă⟩, ⟨ē⟩, and ⟨è⟩ were cancelled, and the three new consonants ⟨by⟩, ⟨py⟩, and ⟨my⟩ were added to form this writing system. The writing system records the ‘Standard Jingpo’ spoken in Bhamo, Myanmar.

According to Liu (1984) ³, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. The superscript T indicates tense vowel in the final, the superscript L indicates lax vowel in the final.
2. ⟨o⟩ is also used to record o.
3. The tones are not recorded.

Jingpo written with Latin in 1957 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Jingpo language. In 1955, the ethnolinguists and intellectuals of the people prescribed the tone symbols, stipulating that the tense vowel be represented by a digraph, cancelling the ⟨aw⟩, replacing ⟨chy⟩ with ⟨c⟩, replacing ⟨hp⟩, ⟨ht⟩, and ⟨hk⟩ with ⟨ph⟩, ⟨th⟩, and ⟨kh⟩, and adding ⟨zh⟩, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨h⟩, and ⟨f⟩. In 1956, with the release of Hanyu Pinyin, the draft was further revised and completed in 1957. In 1964, the standard Jingpo phonology was identified as the Enkun subdialect (恩昆土语) in the Tongbiguan town (铜壁关乡) of Yingjiang county (盈江县). The writing system was officially published in 1965.

According to Liu (1984) ³, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. The tones are not recorded.

Jingpo Password written with Latin in 1930 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Jingpo language. Since this alphabet contains only European digits and symbols, consider recognizing it as Latin script. From the 1930s, young Jingpo people used this writing system to write love letters, and later it was used for military contacts and to convey secrets. This writing system may be closely related to 1895 orthography in terms of when people started using it, thus may record the ‘Standard Jingpo’ spoken in Bhamo, Myanmar.

According to Qi (2001) ⁴, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. Compared to 1895 orthography, this alphabet: (1) lacks v, (2) adds f and o.
2. The IPA given by Qi (2001) for each letter is not plausible, because this alphabet should be understood as a letter-by-letter transcription, and that its correspondence to phonology is undefined.
3. It is worth noting that this alphabet fits perfectly into 1957 orthography, although it is unlikely that there is any correlation between them.

Zaiwa Language

Zaiwa written with Latin in 1927 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Zaiwa language. In 1927 (or around 1920), Chúmlùt Nóng Làt et al. created the Zaiwa alphabet based on the Jingpo alphabet. The writing system records the Zaiwa phonology in Myitkyina, Myanmar.

According to Wannemacher (2010) ⁵, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨ny⟩ is used to record ṅʲ /ŋʲ/.
2. For palatalized consonants, for example, ⟨my⟩ mʲ /mʲᴸ/ for lax vowel, ⟨myh⟩ m̱ʲ /mʲᵀ/ for tense vowel.
3. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
4. The dashed circles indicate binding to the previous grapheme cluster at the relative positions indicated by glyph.

Zaiwa written with Latin in 1983 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Zaiwa language. In 1956, ethnolinguists proposed the draft of the Latin Zaiwa alphabet. There is no material to give the complete alphabet, but the criticism of it lies in the fact that, to distinguish between lax and tense vowels, different consonant letters are used for plosive and fricative consonants (ba ⟨ba⟩, ḇa ⟨pa⟩), but different number of vowel letters are used for nasal and lateral consonants (ma ⟨ma⟩, m̱a ⟨maa⟩). The writing system records the Zaiwa phonology of Longzhun subdialect (龙准土语) in Xishan district (西山乡), Mang city (芒市).

In 1957, the draft was improved by the Third Working Team of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Yunnan ethnolinguists. The differences between 1957 orthography and 1983 orthography is that, 1957 orthography: (1) uses ⟨j⟩ for ź, ⟨jv⟩ for ẕ́, ⟨gy⟩ for gʲ, ⟨gyv⟩ for ḡʲ, ⟨ky⟩ for kʲ; (2) uses ⟨hy⟩ (?) instead of ⟨x⟩ for hʲ.

In 1983, the draft was improved again in 1983, resulting in the current Zaiwa alphabet. According to CASS and NEAC (1992) ⁶, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. The tones are not recorded.

Lahu Language

Lahu written with Latin in 1910 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Lahu language. In 1907, H. H. Tilbe produced a hymnbook and a catechism in Latin Lahu, the alphabet was subsequently improved by James Telford, Vincent Young and Paul Lewis. In 1910 (or 1920s), Rev. Bathow under William Young improved the alphabet. The writing system records the Lahu phonology of Lahu Na dialect in Kengtung, Myanmar.

According to Matisoff (2020) ⁷, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. When precedes i, ⟨ny⟩ instead of ⟨n⟩ is used for n.
3. The ⟨uh⟩ /ɯ/ should be analyzed as: (1) allophone of u, when precedes u, ⟨pf⟩ instead of ⟨p⟩, ⟨hp⟩ instead of ⟨hpf⟩, ⟨bv⟩ instead of ⟨b⟩, ⟨mv⟩ instead of ⟨m⟩ are used for b, p, ḅ and m, and ⟨uh⟩ instead of ⟨u⟩ is used for u; (2) allophone of i, when precedes i, ⟨tc⟩ instead of ⟨c⟩, ⟨ts⟩ instead of ⟨ch⟩, ⟨dz⟩ instead of ⟨j⟩, ⟨s⟩ instead of ⟨sh⟩, ⟨z⟩ instead of ⟨y⟩ are used for z, c, ẓ, s and ṣ, and ⟨uh⟩ instead of ⟨i⟩ is used for i.
4. Matisoff (2020) ⁷ shows the “Catholic alphabet”, the “Protestant alphabet” and the “Chinese alphabet”. According to the Chinese materials, the “Old Lahu” refers to the “Protestant alphabet”.
5. For the consonants: The “Catholic alphabet”: (1) uses ⟨ph⟩ and ⟨phf⟩ for p, ⟨th⟩ for t, ⟨kh⟩ for k; (2) uses ⟨gn⟩ instead of ⟨ny⟩; (3) uses ⟨gh⟩ for h, ⟨q⟩ for ḡ, ⟨qh⟩ for ḵ; (4) uses ⟨è⟩ instead of ⟨eh⟩, ⟨ò⟩ instead of ⟨aw⟩, ⟨ö⟩ instead of ⟨uh⟩, ⟨ü⟩ instead of ⟨ui⟩, ⟨ë⟩ instead of ⟨eu⟩.
6. For the vowels: The “Catholic alphabet” uses ⟨ae⟩ for ai. The “Protestant alphabet” uses ⟨u-i⟩ for ui, ⟨o-e⟩ for ue, ⟨aweh⟩ for ué. The “Catholic alphabet” and the “Protestant alphabet” uses ⟨ao⟩ for au.
7. For the Tones: The “Catholic alphabet” uses ⟨ˍ⟩ for ¹, ⟨ˋ⟩ for ³, ⟨ˊ⟩ for ⁴, ⟨-⟩ for ⁷.
8. Notice that no dashed circles are used, indicating that the tones all correspond to spacing marks.

Lahu written with Latin in 1957 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Lahu language. In 1956, the Institute of Minority Languages of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the relevant danwei in Yunnan Province conducted a comprehensive survey of the Lahu language. In 1957, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Lahu intellectuals designed this writing system. The writing system records the Lahu Putonghua phonology based on Lahu Na dialect (拉祜纳方言) in Menglang town (勐朗镇) and its surroundings in Lancang county (澜沧拉祜族自治县).

According to Chang (1986) ⁸, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. Because [i] and [ɹ̩] are analyzed as the allophones of i /i/, a set of consonants ź, ć, ẓ́, ś and ṣ́ is necessary for separation from z, c, ẓ, s and ṣ. Otherwise these consonants can be analyzed as allophones.
3. ź, ć, ẓ́, ś and ṣ́ are implemented as [t͡ɕ], [t͡ɕʰ], [d͡ʑ], [ɕ] and [ʑ] before i [i], é and ê; and are implemented as [t͡ʃ], [t͡ʃʰ], [d͡ʒ], [ʃ] and [ʒ] otherwise.
4. [ɤ] and [ɯ] are analyzed as the allophones of e /ɤ/.
5. If the tone ³ is to be distinguished from the tone ² in the future, may record the tone ³ using ⟨ll⟩.

Lahu written with Latin in 1989 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Lahu language. In 1984, the Lancang county compilation office proposed a revision based on the problems encountered in the promotion of 1957 orthography. in 1989, the Yunnan Provincial Ethnic Languages Steering Committee issued a document to make the revision. The writing system records the Lahu Putonghua phonology based on Lahu Na dialect (拉祜纳方言) in Menglang town (勐朗镇) and its surroundings in Lancang county (澜沧拉祜族自治县).

According to Zhang (2022) ⁹, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. Because [i] and [ɹ̩] are analyzed as the allophones of i /i/, a set of consonants ź, ć, ẓ́, ś and ṣ́ is necessary for separation from z, c, ẓ, s and ṣ. Otherwise these consonants can be analyzed as allophones.
3. ź, ć, ẓ́, ś and ṣ́ are implemented as [t͡ɕ], [t͡ɕʰ], [d͡ʑ], [ɕ] and [ʑ] before i [i], é and ê; and are implemented as [t͡ʃ], [t͡ʃʰ], [d͡ʒ], [ʃ] and [ʒ] otherwise.

Zhuang Language

Zhuang written with Latin in 1957 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Zhuang language. In 1955, the First Working Team of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Guangxi Zhuang Working Committee developed the writing system, which was revised after more than a year of experimentation and reported to the State Council in 1957. The writing system records the Standard Zhuang phonology based on Northern dialect (北部方言) Yongbei subdialect (邕北土语) and the phonology in Chengxiang town (城厢镇) and Shuangqiao town (双桥镇) in Wuming district (武鸣区).

According to GZWC (1958) ¹⁰, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.
4. ⟨ƨ⟩ < ⟨г⟩, ⟨ƽ⟩ < ⟨ѕ⟩, ⟨ƅ⟩ < ⟨ъ⟩. ⟨ƃ⟩ < ⟨б⟩, ⟨ƌ⟩ < ⟨д⟩.

Zhuang written with Latin in 1982 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Zhuang language. In 1981, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Minority Languages Working Committee organized relevant personnel to revise the 1957 orthography, which was reported to the National Ethnic Affairs Commission for adoption in 1982. The writing system records the Standard Zhuang phonology based on Northern dialect (北部方言) Yongbei subdialect (邕北土语) and the phonology in Chengxiang town (城厢镇) and Shuangqiao town (双桥镇) in Wuming district (武鸣区).

According to CASS and NEAC (1992) ⁶, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.

Wenshan Zhuang written with Latin in 1984 orthography

Note that an orthography designed by Li Zichang (李自昌) is written with Latin and is used to record the Southern dialect (南部方言) for Tu branch (土支系) and is introduced here. Its full text is not available.

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Zhuang language. In 1984, Nong Bingzhen (侬秉真) designed this writing system. The writing system records the Zhuang phonologies in Wenshan prefecture (文山壮族苗族自治州), covering many dialects and subdialects in Zhuang language.

According to He (1999) ¹¹, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. In WEAC (1985) ¹², ⟨rb⟩ is used for ḅ, ⟨rd⟩ is used for ḍ, ⟨rg⟩ is used for ġ, ⟨rj⟩ is used for ẓ́, ⟨ur⟩ is used for e. Without access to its full text, it is not clear whether there are other differences, but it can be confirmed that only the Latin letters ⟨a⟩ to ⟨z⟩ are used.
4. In WEAC (2005) ¹³, ⟨nd⟩ is used for ḍ, ⟨zh⟩ is used for x. In addition, letters have been added for alternate phonemes: ⟨hh⟩ is used for /ʔʰ/, ⟨h⟩ is used for coda /ʔ/, ⟨ae⟩ is used for /æ/. Writing a vowel letter twice without coda indicates nasalization.

Qiubei Zhuang written with Latin in 1985 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Zhuang language. Since 1985, this writing system has been used for literacy in Qiubei county (丘北县). The writing system supposedly records Qiubei subdialect (丘北土语), and we have labelled it as such, but is actually not the same as Qiubei phonology, but rather the same as Buyi language.

According to He (1999) ¹¹, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.
4. For this writing system to record Qiubei phonology, it would require (1) the abolition of the letters ⟨qv⟩, ⟨by⟩, ⟨my⟩, ⟨qy⟩, (2) ⟨s⟩ for recording /θ/, ⟨r⟩ for recording /ð/, ⟨z⟩ for recording /d͡ʑ/, and (3) the introduction of ⟨hv⟩ to record /xʷ/, ⟨xv⟩ to record /ɕʷ/.

Yunnan Zhuang written with Latin in 2014 orthography

Note that a Yunnan Zhuang orthography reviewed by He Zhengting (何正廷), Meng Simu (蒙斯牧), Lu Baocheng (陆保成), Nong Kaiwen (农开文), Nong Shengyu (农胜玉) and Li Guiyou (黎贵优) is provided here. This orthography is very similar to the orthography introduced in this section.

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Zhuang language. In 2014, the Zhuang language tutorial was published, in which, on the basis of 1982 orthography, some spelling and pronunciation combinations were added for learning and use according to the actual situation of the Yunnan Zhuang dialects for the Yunnan Zhuang people to learn and use. The writing system records the Zhuang phonology based on the Southern dialect (南部方言) Yanshan-Guangnan subdialect (砚广土语) and Guangnan Nong phonology (广南侬话) in Wenshan prefecture (文山壮族苗族自治州).

According to Lu & Wei (2014) ¹⁴, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.
4. [r] and [ð] are analyzed as the allophones of r, [s] and [θ] are analyzed as the allophones of s.
5. ó, ú and é are special vowels in Yunnan Zhuang dialects.

Buyi Language

Buyi written with Latin in 1956 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Buyi language. In 1956, the Scientific Symposium on Buyi Language and Script Issues was held in Guiyang, Guizhou, and the writing system was formed by adopting the policy of alliance between Buyi and Zhuang orthographies. The writing system records the Buyi phonology based on the First subdialect (第一土语) in Wantanhe town (湾滩河镇), the former Yangchang town (羊场镇), Longli county (龙里县).

According to GELSC (1957) ¹⁵, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.
4. ⟨ƨ⟩ < ⟨г⟩, ⟨ƽ⟩ < ⟨ѕ⟩, ⟨ƅ⟩ < ⟨ъ⟩. ⟨ƃ⟩ < ⟨б⟩, ⟨ƌ⟩ < ⟨д⟩.

Buyi written with Latin in 1958 orthography

Note that according to the Guizhou Ethnic Affairs Commission ¹⁶, in 1958 they revised the 1956 orthography to eliminate all non-Latin letters, but the program was not implemented. There is no written material giving the exact alphabet.

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Buyi language. The writing system records the Buyi phonology based on the First subdialect (第一土语) in Wantanhe town (湾滩河镇), the former Yangchang town (羊场镇), Longli county (龙里县).

According to the related document ¹⁷, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.
4. ⟨ƨ⟩ < ⟨г⟩, ⟨ƽ⟩ < ⟨ѕ⟩, ⟨ƅ⟩ < ⟨ъ⟩. ⟨ƃ⟩ < ⟨б⟩, ⟨ƌ⟩ < ⟨д⟩.

Buyi written with Latin in 1982 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Buyi language. In October 1981, the Guizhou Ethnic Affairs Commission and the Guizhou Ethnic Institute held a meeting to discuss the revision of 1956 orthography, and the revised orthography was resumed on a trial basis in 1982. The writing system records the Buyi phonology in Wantanhe town (湾滩河镇), the former Yangchang town (羊场镇), Longli county (龙里县).

According to Wang (1982) ¹⁸, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
2. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.

Buyi written with Latin in 1985 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Buyi language. In 1985, more than three years of practice showed that 1982 orthography has achieved good results, there are also some problems, in response to the Second Symposium on the Buyi Language Issue the orthography was revised. The writing system records the Buyi phonology in Wangmu street (王母街道) and Pingdong street (平洞街道), the former Fuxing town (复兴镇), Wangmo county (望谟县).

According to CASS and NEAC (1992) ⁶, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. For Han loan words, the four tones are represented by ⟨y⟩, ⟨f⟩, ⟨j⟩ and ⟨q⟩.

Dong Language

Dong written with Latin in 1958 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Dong language. In 1956, the Institute of Languages of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Central Institute of Ethnicity, the Central South Institute of Ethnicity and the Guizhou Institute of Ethnicity carried out a survey of the Dong language and devised the writing system, which was adopted at an official meeting of the Scientific Symposium on Dong Language in 1958. The writing system records the Dong phonology in Zhanglu village (章鲁村), Chejiang town (车江乡), Rongjiang county (榕江县).

According to CASS and NEAC (1992) ⁶, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. In zero-initial syllables, the ü is realized as [wʲ], for example, ⟨üe⟩ [wʲe].

Tu Language

Tu written with Latin in 1981 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Tu language. In the 1970s, the Tu people once again demanded the creation of a writing system, and ethnolinguists devised a draft of this writing system; the draft was adopted by the Huzhu County People’s Congress in 1979, and in 1981, the Qinghai Provincial People’s Government approved the draft and submitted it to the National Ethnic Affairs Commission for approval. The writing system refers to the Huzhu dialect (互助方言) and the Donggou subdialect (东沟土语) in Huzhu county (互助县). Receiving the influence of morphology and historical linguistics, its orthography is more complex.

According to Li (2008) ¹⁹, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. q appears in the Minhe dialect (民和方言).
2. ⟨g⟩ instead of ⟨gh⟩ is used for q in coda.
3. i ⟨i⟩ is realized as [i] in word initial, in compound final, and after ź, ć, ś, y; as [ɹ̩] after z, c, s; as [ɻ̍] after ẑ, ĉ, ŝ; as [ə] otherwise.
4. When the first word root is followed by particle, it is written as it is pronounced, e.g. ningen ⟨ningen⟩ + reˡ ⟨ree⟩ = ningireˡ ⟨ningiree⟩ ‘become thinner’. When sound change occurs in word formation, it is not written as it is pronounced, e.g. ġaźar ⟨ghajar⟩ + wa ⟨wa⟩ = ġaźarra ⟨ghajarwa⟩ ‘be the land’.
5. Specific phonetic environments have to follow ancient sounds or they can be misrecognized, e.g. nara ⟨nara⟩ + sa ⟨sa⟩ = naransa ⟨naransa⟩ ‘from the sun’.
6. Weakened word-initial vowels in Donggou phonology may not be omitted, e.g. maraġ ⟨amarag⟩ ‘harmonious’.

Sala Language

Sala written with Latin in 2008 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Sala language. Since the 1980s, Professor Han Jianye (韩建业) of Qinghai Minzu University has been creating this writing system, which was completed by 2008 at the latest. The writing system records the Jiezi subdialect (街子土语) of Sala language in Xunhua county (循化县).

According to Han & Ma (2008) ²⁰, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨ǧ⟩ is used to represent /ɣ/ and /ʁ/ because /ɣ/ appears after front vowel while /ʁ/ appears after back vowel. ⟨x⟩ is used to represent /χ/ and /x/ for the same reason.
2. ⟨q⟩ is used to represent /q/ and /qʰ/ because /qʰ/ appears only before ïs, us, uś and iś.
3. ⟨ǧ⟩ < ⟨ğ⟩.

Wa Language

Wa written with Latin in 1912 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Wa language. In 1912, William Marcus Young and Marcus Vincent Young designed this writing system with Wa intellectuals. The writing system roughly records Wa phonology in Ankang town (安康佤族乡), Lancang county (澜沧拉祜族自治县) and Yanshuai town (岩帅镇), Cangyuan county (沧源佤族自治县), as inferred from the geographical distribution of the Wa people who assisted the missionaries.

According to Wang (2016) ²¹, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨w⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are used to record loan words.
2. ⟨-⟩ is used in multi-vowel finals such as iê ⟨i-eh⟩, ei ⟨ui-i⟩.
3. ⟨sh⟩ only precedes i, and can be analyzed as an allophone of s.
4. Many many contraries are not recorded in this writing system, making it impossible to infer the phonology it records.

Wa written with Latin in 1956 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Wa language. In 1956, the Third Working Team of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Yunnan ethnolinguists designed this writing system. The writing system roughly records the standard Wa phonology based on Baraoke dialect (巴饶克方言) in Yanshuai town (岩帅镇), Cangyuan county (沧源佤族自治县).

According to Wang (2003) ²², the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨’⟩ A is used to separate syllables, e.g. haukhuan ⟨hauk’huan⟩ ‘develop’, siauh ⟨si’auh⟩ ‘hot’.

Wa written with Latin in 1958 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Wa language. In 1958, Yunnan Province revised its 1956 orthography in accordance with the guidance of the State Council. The writing system roughly records the standard Wa phonology based on Baraoke dialect (巴饶克方言) in Yanshuai town (岩帅镇), Cangyuan county (沧源佤族自治县).

According to Zhou & Yan (1984) ²³, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨eui⟩ is used to record è̱i̱.

Naxi Language

Note that an orthography written with Latin was designed by Joseph Rock and used in his book A Na-Khi – English Encyclopedic Dictionary, published in 1963 and 1970. The writing system roughly records Naxi phonology based on Western dialect (西部方言) and the ‘Naxi phonology in villages north and west of Lijiang in the Jinsha River valley’. Since this orthography is only used in the literature, it is not described here.

Naxi written with Latin in 1957 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Naxi language. In 1956, the Third Working Team of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Yunnan ethnolinguists designed this writing system. The draft was adopted in 1957. The writing system records the Naxi phonology based on Western dialect (西部方言) and Dayan subdialect (大研镇土语) in Lijiang county (丽江县).

According to He & Jiang (1985) ²⁴, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. ⟨ee⟩ is implemented as [ɹ̩] before z, c, ẓ, s and ṣ; and is implemented as [ɻ̍] before ẑ, ĉ, ẓ̂, ŝ and ṣ̂.
3. ⟨y⟩ is introduced when i ⟨yi⟩, ü ⟨yu⟩, iá ⟨yai⟩, ia ⟨ya⟩, iê ⟨yei⟩ and ie ⟨ye⟩ follow the zero-initial. ⟨w⟩ is introduced when u ⟨wu⟩, ui ⟨wi⟩, uá ⟨wai⟩, ua ⟨wa⟩, uê ⟨wei⟩ and ue ⟨we⟩ follow the zero-initial.
4. ⟨’⟩ A is used to separate syllables, e.g. cé²lé³ ⟨cee’leeq⟩ ‘Accipiter nisus’.

Mienic language

Iu Mien written with Latin in 1982 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Iu Mien subdialect. In 1982, scholars from the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, the Minzu University of China, and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences devised this writing system, and in 1984, representatives from China, Thailand, and the United States harmonized the writing system. The writing system records the Iu Mien phonology for Pan Yao people (盘瑶) in Changdong town (长垌乡), Jinxiu county (金秀瑶族自治县).

According to He (1999) ¹¹, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. Palatalization and labialization are represented as ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩.

Kim Mun written with Latin in 1982 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Kim Mun subdialect. In 1982, after designing the Iu Mien 1982 orthography, this writing system was designed in conjunction with Yunnan Kim Mun phonology. The specific phonology recorded in this writing system is unclear.

According to He (1999) ¹¹, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.

Maonan Language

Maonan written with Latin in 2015 orthography

The writing system uses the Latin script to record the Maonan language. The design of the writing system began in 2010 and was updated in 2012, 2013 and 2015. This section shows the 2015 version presented in maonan.org. The writing system records the Maonan phonology in Huanjiang county (环江县).

According to maonan.org, the alphabet is shown below:

Remark:

1. ⟨-⟩ means that the form of absence is used.
2. The superscript s indicates a shorter vowel, the superscript l indicates a longer vowel.
3. /ȶ/ and /ȶʰ/ appear to be merged into g and k.
4. /h/ and /ɦ/ are merged into h.
5. Palatalization and labialization are represented as ⟨i⟩ and ⟨w⟩, except ⟨lyuq⟩ ‘fast’, ⟨gyu⟩ ‘laugh’ and ⟨kyu⟩ ‘fear’ to distinguish from ⟨liux⟩, ⟨giuz⟩ ‘bridge’ and ⟨kiuq⟩ ‘dry’.
6. /ɹ̩/ and /ɯ/ are merged into î.
7. The checked tones ⁷ and ⁸ correspond to nothing, but are distinguished by coda letters. ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨k⟩ are used for high tone coda in tone ⁷, while ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ are used for low tone coda in tone ⁸.

Reference